RESEARCH DESIGN STRATEGIES

What is Research Design?

• A plan for selecting the sources and types of information used to answer research questions
  
• A framework for specifying the relationships among the study variables
  
• A blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypothesis to the analysis
  

Classifications of Designs

• Exploratory study is usually to develop hypotheses or questions for further research
  
• Formal study is to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions
  

Methods of Data Collection

• Monitoring, which includes observational
  studies
  
• Interrogation/communication studies
  

Power to Produce Effects

• In an experiment, the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in the study
  
• In an ex post facto design, the researcher has no control over the variables; they can only report what has happened.
  

Purpose of the Study

• Descriptive study tries to explain relationships among variables.
  
• Causal study is how one variable produces changes in another.
  

The Time Dimension

• Cross-sectional studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time
  
• Longitudinal studies are repeated over an extended period
  

The Topical Scope

• Statistical studies attempt to capture a population's characteristics by making inferences from a sample's characteristics
  
• Case studies place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and their interrelations
  

The Research Environment

• Field conditions
  
• Laboratory conditions
  
• Simulations
  

A Participant's Perceptions

• Usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in the study perceive that research is being conducted
  
• Participants' perceptions influence the outcomes of the research
  

Why do Exploratory Studies?

• Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems
  

Data Collection Techniques

• Qualitative techniques
  
• Secondary data
  
• Focus groups
  
• Two-stage design
  

Causation

• The essential element of causation is
  
  • A "produces" B
    

                Or

• A "forces" B to occur
  

Causal Study Relationships

• Symmetrical
  
• Reciprocal
  
• Asymmetrical
  

Asymmetrical Relationships

• Stimulus-Response
  
• Property-Disposition
  
• Disposition-Behavior
  
• Property-Behavior
  

Achieving the Ideal Experimental Design

• Control
  
  • Random Assignment
    
  • Matching
    
• Randomization    
  
  • Manipulation and control of variables
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

 

Primary Sources

• Contemporary Accounts of an event written by the person who witnessed or experienced it. FIRST HAND!
  
  
• Original Documents, Unpublished – not about another document or account
  
• Published works - as long as they are written soon after the fact and not as historical accounts
  

Primary Sources

Include:

• Diaries Interviews
  
• Letters Photographs
  
• Memoirs Audio or video recordings
  
• Journals Research reports (natural or social sciences)
  
• Speeches Original literary or theatrical works
  
• Manuscripts
  
• Statistical Data
  

Secondary Sources

• Interpret primary sources - at least one step removed from the event or phenomenon under review
  
• Examination of studies that other researchers have made of a subject
  
• Second Hand - conveys the experiences and opinions of others
  
• Usually in the form of published works
  
  • Journal articles
    
  • Books
    
  • Radio and TV documentaries
    

How do you know?

• Ask yourself some questions:
  
  • How does the author know these details?
    
  • Was the author present at the event or soon on the scene?
    
  • Where does this information come from—personal experience, eyewitness accounts, or reports written by others?
    
  • Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence, or have many sources been taken into account?
    
• For further details click links below.
  http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/PrimarySources.html
  

http://www.library.utoronto.ca/gerstein/tutorial/primary_research1.html

MEASUREMENT SCALES

What is Scaling?

Scaling is assigning numbers to indicants of the properties of objects

Types of Response Scales

• Rating Scales
  
• Ranking Scales
  
• Categorization
  

Types of Rating Scales

• Simple category Numerical
  
• Multiple choice, single response Multiple rating
  
• Multiple choice, multiple response Fixed sum
  
• Likert scale Staple
  
• Semantic differential Graphic rating
  

Category Scale

• The category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response.
  
• This uses the nominal scale.
  
• Example: where in northern California do you reside? North Bay, South Bay, East Bay, Peninsula, and other.
  

Likert Scale

• This is an interval scale and the differences in the responses between any two points on the scale remain the same.
  
• The responses over a number of items tapping a particular concept or variable are then summated for every respondent.
  
• Example: it is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with statements on a 5-point scale for the work.
  

Semantic Differential Scale

• It is used to assess respondent's attitudes toward a particular brand, advertisement, object, or individual.
  
• This is treated as an interval scale.
  
• Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of the scale such as Good-Bad, Strong-Weak, and Hot-Cold.
  
• Example: responsive-unresponsive, beautiful-ugly, and courageous-timid.
  

Numerical Scale

• It is similar to the semantic differential scale.
  
• The 5-point or 7-point scale are provided.
  
• Example: 7-point, extremely pleased-extremely displeased.
  

Itemized Rating Scale

• A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item.
  
• When a neutral point is provided, it is a balanced rating scale, and when it is not, it is an unbalanced rating scale.
  
• Research indicates that a 5-point scale is just as good as any, and that an increase from 5 to 7 or 9 points on a rating scale does not improve the reliability of the ratings.
  

Itemized Rating Scale (cont.)

• Example: 5 points, balanced rating scale with a neutral point.
  
• Example: 4 points, unbalanced rating scale without a neutral point.
  

Fixed or Constant Sum Scale

• The respondents are here asked to distribute a given number of points across various items.
  
• This is in the nature of an ordinal scale.
  
• Example: In choosing a toilet soap such as fragrance, color, shape, size, and texture of lather.
  

Stapel Scale

• This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the items under study.
  
• This is does not have an absolute zero point, this is an interval scale.
  
• Example: supervisor's abilities such as adopting modern technology, product innovation, and interpersonal skill, from +3 to –3.
  

Graphic Rating Scale

• A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line.
  
• This is an ordinal scale, but might appear to make it look like an interval scale.
  
• It is applied as faces scale such as feeling about their jobs.
  
• Example: rate your supervisor, excellent (10) – all right (5) – very bad (1).
  

Rating Scale Errors to Avoid

• Leniency
  
  • Negative Leniency
    
  • Positive Leniency
    
• Central Tendency
  
• Halo Effect
  

Ranking Scale

• They are used to tap preferences between two or among more objects or items (ordinal in nature).
  
• Such ranking may not give definitive clues to some of the answers sought, for example, the four product lines (35%, 25%, 20%, 20%).
  
• The methods used are the paired comparisons, forced choice, and the comparative scale.
  

Paired Comparison Scale

• The scale is used when, among a small number of objects, respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time.
  
• The paired choices for n objects will be .
  
• The greater the number of objects or stimuli, the greater the number of paired comparisons presented to the respondents, and the greater the respondent fatigue.
  

Forced Choice Scale

• It enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternatives provided.
  
• This is easier for the respondents.
  
• Example: assigning 1 for the most preferred choice and 5 for the least preferred for Fortune, Playboy, Time, People, and Prevention magazines.
  

Comparative Scale

• It provides a benchmark or a point of reference to assess attitude toward the current object, event, or situation under study.
  
• Example: volatile financial environment compared to stocks – invest in Treasury bonds (more useful, about the same, and less useful).
  

Summary of Scale

• Nominal data lend themselves to dichotomous or category scale.
  
• Ordinal data to any one of the ranking scales – paired comparison, forced choice, or comparative scales.
  
• Interval or interval-like data to the other rating scales such as Likert scale, itemized rating scale, fixed or constant sum rating scale, Stapel scale, graphic rating scale, consensus scale.
  

Summary of Scale (cont.)

• The semantic differential and the numerical scales are, strictly speaking, not interval scales, though they are often treated as such in data analysis.
  

Dimensions of a Scale

• Unidimensional
  
• Multidimensional
  

Scale Design Techniques

• Arbitrary scaling
  
• Consensus scaling
  
• Item Analysis scaling
  
• Cumulative scaling
  
• Factor scaling
  

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

What is Business Research?

A systematic Inquiry whose objective is to provide information to solve managerial problems.

Why Study Research?

Research provides you with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-paced decision-making environment

Why Managers need Better Information

• Global and domestic competition is more vigorous
  
• Organizations are increasingly practicing data mining and data warehousing
  

The Value of Acquiring Research Skills

• To gather more information before selecting a course of action
  
• To do a high-level research study
  
• To understand research design
  
• To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma
  
• To establish a career as a research specialist
  

Types of Studies Used to do Research

• Reporting
  
• Descriptive
  
• Explanatory
  
• Predictive
  

Exploratory study

• An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
  
• Extensive interviews with many people might have to be undertaken to get a handle on the situation and understand the phenomena.
  
• More rigorous research could then proceed.
  

Exploratory studies are also necessary when some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework

Descriptive study

• Descriptive studies are undertaken to understand the characteristics of organizations that follow certain common practices such as the age, educational level, job status, sex, length of service, and working in the system.
  

Different Styles of Research

(1) Applied Research

(2) Pure Research/Basic Research

What is Good Research?

• Following the standards of the scientific method
  
  • Purpose clearly defined
    
  • Research process detailed
    
  • Research design thoroughly planned
    
  • Limitations frankly revealed
    
  • High ethical standards applied
    

The Manager-Researcher Relationship

• Manager's obligations
  
  • Specify problems
    
  • Provide adequate background information
    
  • Access to company information gatekeepers
    
• Researcher's obligations
  
  • Develop a creative research design
    
  • Provide answers to important business questions
    

Manager-Researcher Conflicts

• Management's limited exposure to research
  
• Manager sees researcher as threat to personal status
  
• Researcher has to consider corporate culture and political situations
  
• Researcher's isolation from managers
  

When Research Should be Avoided

• When information cannot be applied to a critical managerial decision
  
• When managerial decision involves little risk
  
• When management has insufficient resources to conduct a study
  
• When the cost of the study outweighs the level of risk of the decision